Tag Archives: Public-private partnership

ENIAC

Outline of the Community (European Union) legislation about ENIAC

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These categories group together and put in context the legislative and non-legislative initiatives which deal with the same topic.

Research and innovation > Research in support of other policies

ENIAC

Document or Iniciative

Council Regulation (EC) No 72/2008 of 20 December 2007 setting up the ENIAC Joint Undertaking.

Summary

The ENIAC Joint Undertaking implements the Joint Technology Initiative (JTI) on nanoelectronics with a view to developing information and communication technologies. This public-private partnership aims to support investments in this area, sources of innovation and competitiveness. The JTI on nanoelectronics is thus also part of the European Research Area (ERA) and contributes to research and development (R&D).

Based in Brussels, the Joint Undertaking is a Community body with legal personality. It was set up for a period extending until 31 December 2017. The founding members of the Joint Undertaking are the Community, Belgium, Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the AENEAS association, which represents companies and other R&D actors operating in the field of nanoelectronics. The ENIAC Joint Undertaking is open to new members. Up to now, Austria, the Czech Republic and Norway have joined the list of members.

Objectives

The ENIAC Joint Undertaking is to contribute to the implementation of the Seventh Framework Programme for research, technological development and demonstration activities (Seventh Framework Programme) in the field of nanoelectronics. One of its key objectives is to encourage the development of essential skills by means of a research programme and to support its activities. It is thus aimed at encouraging European competitiveness as well as the emergence of new markets and new social applications. Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are also encouraged to participate.

The Joint Undertaking also aims to promote cooperation and the coordination of Community and national efforts, both public and private, in order to support R&D and investment: concentrating efforts will, in particular, make it possible to ensure that better use is made of results.

Operation

The Joint Undertaking consists of the following bodies:

The governing board, made up of representatives of the members of the ENIAC Joint Undertaking and the chairperson of the industry and research committee. It ensures the smooth running of the organisation and supervises the implementation of its activities;
The executive director, appointed for a three-year period by the governing board, is the main person responsible for day-to-day management and is the legal representative of the Joint Undertaking;
The public authorities board, made up of the public authorities of the Joint Undertaking which appoints their representatives and their lead delegate. Its role includes approving the scope and the launch of calls for proposals and deciding on the selection and financing of accepted proposals;
The industry and research committee, comprising a maximum of 25 members, is appointed by the AENEAS association. It is responsible in particular for drawing up the multiannual strategic plan and for drafting proposals concerning the Joint Undertaking’s strategy.

ENIAC’s resources consist of contributions from members and from the Community as well as revenue generated by ENIAC itself. Any legal entity that is not a member may make a contribution to ENIAC’s resources either in cash or in kind.

ENIAC’s costs consist of:

Operating costs, borne by its members. AENEAS also makes a contribution of up to EUR 20 million or at most 1 % of the sum of total costs for all projects. The Community’s contribution may not exceed the sum of EUR 10 million. ENIAC Member States make a contribution in kind;
R&D activities. The Community makes a contribution of up to EUR 440 million. The financial contributions of ENIAC Member States, equivalent to at least 1.8 times the contribution made by the Community, do not pass through the Joint Undertaking but are paid directly to the research and development bodies participating in the projects. Furthermore, those same bodies make contributions in kind whose value is equivalent to at least half the total cost of R&D activities.

R&D activities are implemented by means of projects launched as a result of competitive calls for proposals. These projects are financed by financial contributions from the Community and from participating Member States and by contributions in kind from the research and development bodies participating in the Joint Undertaking’s projects.

As a Community initiative, the Joint Undertaking and its staff are covered by Community legislation. In particular, the Court of Justice of the European Communities is the authority responsible for ruling on any proceedings between members and on proceedings brought against the ENIAC Joint Undertaking. The Commission and the Court of Auditors carry out checks on recipients of any Joint Undertaking finance.

Background

The Lisbon Agenda for Growth and Jobs placed emphasis on investment in the fields of knowledge and innovation. Therefore the JTIs, public-private partnerships implemented by Joint Undertakings, have been initiated under the Seventh Framework Programme. These JTIs stem from the work of European Technology Platforms set up under the Sixth Framework Programme.

With the “ENIAC” initiative, five other JTIs are planned in the following sectors: embedded computing systems (ARTEMIS), innovative medicines (IMI), aeronautics and air transport (CLEAN SKY), hydrogen and fuel cells (FUEL CELL), and Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES).

References

Act	Entry into force	Timescale for transposition into Member States	Official Journal
Regulation (EC) No. 72/2008	7.2.2008	–	OJ L 30, 4.2.2008

Green Paper on public-private partnerships

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Green Paper on public-private partnerships

Outline of the Community (European Union) legislation about Green Paper on public-private partnerships

Topics

These categories group together and put in context the legislative and non-legislative initiatives which deal with the same topic.

Internal market > Businesses in the internal market > Public procurement

Green Paper on public-private partnerships

The phenomenon of public-private partnerships (PPPs), which re-define the relationship between the public and private spheres, is expanding rapidly. This Green Paper takes stock of existing practices in the European Union from the perspective of Community legislation. In letting those involved express their views, it launches a debate on whether a specific legal framework should be drawn up at European level.

Document or Iniciative

Green Paper on public-private partnerships and Community law on public contracts and concessions [COM(2004) 327 final].

Summary

PPPs describe a form of cooperation between the public authorities and economic operators. The primary aims of this cooperation are to fund, construct, renovate or operate an infrastructure or the provision of a service. PPPs are present in sectors such as transport, public health, education, national security, waste management, and water and energy distribution. At European level, they help implement the European Initiative for Growth and trans-European transport networks.

PPPs are characterised by:

the duration of the relationship between the partners;
the method of funding the project;
the role of the partners in the definition of objectives, design, completion, implementation, and funding;
the distribution of risks.

The Green Paper distinguishes two types of PPP:

PPPs of a purely contractual nature.
In this case, the partnership is based solely on contractual links and may fall within the scope of European Directives on public procurement;
PPPs of an institutional nature.
These PPPs involve cooperation within a distinct entity and may lead to the creation of an ad hoc entity held jointly by the public sector and the private sector or the control of a public entity by a private operator.

Analysing PPPs from the perspective of Community legislation

There is no specific legal framework for PPPs at European level. The Green Paper therefore seeks to examine whether the Treaty establishing the European Community (EC Treaty) and its secondary legislation is suitable and sufficient to cope with the particular challenges posed by PPPs. This analysis looks at both the selection of the private partner and the implementation of the partnership.

Any act whereby a public entity entrusts the provision of an economic activity to a third party must be examined in the light of the rules and principles of the EC Treaty. With regard to the freedom of establishment and the freedom to provide services (Articles 43 to 49), these principles encompass transparency, equality of treatment, proportionality and mutual recognition. The EC Treaty thus applies to PPPs.

Certain forms of PPPs are subject to European legislation on public procurement procedures. Revised in 2004, this legislation introduces a new procedure for awarding contracts: the competitive dialogue. This dialogue provides a legal basis for certain forms of PPPs in the case of very complex projects for which a competent authority has a specific need and seeks the economic operator offering the optimum technical solution.

PPPs may be involved in works or services concessions. These can be distinguished from public contracts insofar as at least part of the economic operator’s remuneration comes from operation of the infrastructure or service. At European level, concessions fall partly, or in the case of services concessions entirely, outside the scope of the European directives on public procurement. The Commission’s Interpretative Communication on concessions under Community law [Official Journal C 121 of 29 April 2000] sheds light on the obligations incumbent on the public authorities when selecting the applicants to whom concessions are granted.

Is there a need for a specific legal framework for PPPs at European level?

Professional circles complain about the lack of legal clarity in Community legislation, a situation which is holding back the expansion of PPPs.

The Green Paper launches a public consultation on the best way to ensure the development of PPPs under conditions of effective competition and legal clarity. It asks a total of 22 questions which deal in particular with the following topics:

the framework of the procedures for selecting the private partner;
the establishment of private initiative PPPs;
the contractual framework and any changes made in the course of a PPP;
sub-contracting;
the importance of effective competition in the case of institutionalised PPPs.

The Commission promises to analyse and publish the results of the contributions made to the public consultation. It will, where appropriate, submit concrete follow-up initiatives. There are various possibilities, none of which is compulsory: binding legislation, an interpretative communication, the better coordination of national actions, or the exchange of best practice among Member States.

Background

As announced in its Strategy for the internal market 2003-2006, the European Commission has published the Green Paper on public-private partnerships (PPPs).

PPPs have been expanding rapidly over the last fifteen years or so. The public authorities make increasing use of them in view of the budgetary constraints with which they are confronted. In this way, they can benefit from private sector know-how. Another advantage lies in the savings made possible by PPPs as they incorporate all the stages of a project, from its design through to exploitation. On a more general level, PPPs also contribute to the Community debate on services of general interest. The development of PPPs also forms part of the changing role of the State in the economy, as it moves away from being a direct operator towards the role of organiser, regulator and controller.

Related Acts

Communication from the Commission of 15 November 2005 to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on public-private partnerships and Community law on public procurement and concessions [COM(2005) 569 final – Not published in the Official Journal].

ARTEMIS

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ARTEMIS

Outline of the Community (European Union) legislation about ARTEMIS

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These categories group together and put in context the legislative and non-legislative initiatives which deal with the same topic.

Research and innovation > Research in support of other policies

ARTEMIS

Document or Iniciative

Council Regulation (EC) No 74/2008 of 20 December 2007 on the establishment of the ARTEMIS Joint Undertaking to implement a Joint Technology Initiative in Embedded Computing Systems

Summary

From mobile phones to bank cards, cars and planes, integrated computing devices have become part and parcel of our daily lives.

They also represent a growing share in the value of finished goods in many key industrial sectors.

According to recent statistics, these technologies represent a true growth market:

98 % of computers are integrated in other devices;
over 4 billion embedded systems were sold in 2007;
the world market comes to EUR 60 billion and is continuing to grow at an annual rate of 14 %;
by 2010, it is expected that over 16 billion embedded computers will be in circulation (over 40 billion by 2020).

The European Union (EU) has this market in its sights, focusing its efforts on a new Joint Undertaking, known as ARTEMIS.

The ARTEMIS Joint Undertaking implements the Joint Technology Initiative (JTI) on Embedded Computing Systems.

This public-private partnership aims essentially to support the co-financing of research initiatives at European level and to improve cooperation between the various operators in the sector.

Based in Brussels, the Joint Undertaking is a Community body with legal personality. It has been set up for a period up to 31 December 2017. The founding members of the Joint Undertaking are the Community (represented by the Commission), Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Italy, Hungary, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Finland, Sweden, the United Kingdom and ARTEMISIA, an association representing companies and research and development (R&D) organisations active in the field of embedded computing systems. The ARTEMIS Joint Undertaking is open to new members.

Objectives

ARTEMIS contributes to the implementation of the Specific Programme “Cooperation” of the Seventh Framework Research and Development Programme (7th FRDP).

It aims in particular:

to define and implement a “Research Agenda” for the development of key technologies for embedded computing systems;
to provide financial support for various R&D activities;
to promote a public-private partnership favouring convergence of Community and national efforts (public and private), investments, and collaboration between the various sectors involved;
to improve the coordination of R&D efforts in the field of embedded computing systems;
to encourage the involvement of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).

Functioning

The Joint Undertaking bodies are:

the Governing Board, which consists of representatives of the members of the ARTEMIS Joint Undertaking and the Chairperson of the Industry and Research Committee, has responsibility for the operations of the Joint Undertaking and oversees the implementation of its activities;
the Executive Director is appointed for a three-year period by the Governing Board, is responsible for the day-to-day management and is the legal representative of the Joint Undertaking;
the Public Authorities Board consists of the public authorities of the Joint Undertaking, each of which appoints its representatives and a lead delegate. Its tasks include approving the scope and the launch of calls for proposals and deciding the selection and funding of the proposals selected;
the Industry and Research Committee consists of a maximum of twenty-five members appointed by the ARTEMISIA association. Its tasks include preparing the draft Multiannual Strategic Plan and making proposals regarding the strategy of the Joint Undertaking.

The ARTEMIS resources are made up of contributions from the members and the Community and revenue generated by ARTEMIS itself. Any legal entity which is not a member may make in-kind or cash contributions to the ARTEMIS resources.

The ARTEMIS costs consist of:

running costs, borne by its members. ARTEMISIA also makes a contribution of up to EUR 20 million or up to 1 % of the sum of the total cost of all projects. The Community contribution may not exceed EUR 10 million. The ARTEMIS Member States make in-kind contributions;
R&D activities. The Community makes a contribution of up to EUR 410 million. The financial contributions from the ARTEMIS Member States amount to at least 1.8 times the Community’s financial contribution and do not pass through the Joint Undertaking, but are paid directly to the research and development organisations participating in the projects. Furthermore, the same bodies make in-kind contributions to the projects, the total value of which over the duration of the Joint Undertaking is equal to or greater than the contribution of the public authorities.

The R&D activities are implemented by means of projects launched following open and competitive calls for proposals. These projects are funded by financial contributions from the Community and the participating Member States and by in-kind contributions by the research and development organisations participating in the projects of the Joint Undertaking.

As a Community initiative, Community legislation applies to the Joint Undertaking, including its staff. The Court of Justice of the European Communities has jurisdiction in any dispute between the members and in actions brought against the ARTEMIS Joint Undertaking. The Commission and the Court of Auditors carry out checks among the recipients of the Joint Undertaking’s funding.

Background

The Lisbon Agenda for Growth and Jobs placed the emphasis on investment in knowledge and innovation. In this respect, JTIs, which are public-private partnerships implemented by joint undertakings, have been set up under the 7th FRDP. These JTIs stem from the work of European Technology Platforms set up under the 6th FRDP.

In addition to the “ARTEMIS” initiative, five other JTIs are planned in nano-electronics (ENIAC), innovative medicines (IMI), aeronautics and air transport (CLEAN SKY), hydrogen and fuel cells (FUEL CELL), and global monitoring for environment and security (GMES).

References

Act	Entry into force	Deadline for transposition in the Member States	Official Journal
Regulation (EC) No 74/2008 [adoption: consultation CNS/ 2007/ 088]	7.2.2008	–	OJ L 30 of 4.2.2008

A new dimension for European judicial training

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A new dimension for European judicial training

Outline of the Community (European Union) legislation about A new dimension for European judicial training

Topics

These categories group together and put in context the legislative and non-legislative initiatives which deal with the same topic.

Justice freedom and security > Judicial cooperation in criminal matters

A new dimension for European judicial training

Document or Iniciative

Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions of 13 September 2011 – Building trust in EU-wide justice A new dimension to European judicial training [COM(2011) 551 final – Not published in the Official Journal].

Summary

National laws and European law coexist within the European Union (EU). Legal practitioners must have sufficient knowledge of national legal systems and of EU law to guarantee legal security and the uniform application of European law. The recognition and execution of judicial decisions and cooperation between the judicial authorities of different Member States are also dependent on this.

The Commission has therefore set itself the objective of ensuring that half of legal practitioners have participated in a European judicial training activity by 2020. Although priority is given to judges and prosecutors, the goal is to target all legal practitioners.

Training content

Above all, training should be practical and be given both on entry to the profession (initial training) and throughout a person’s career (continuous training). Priority should be given to the areas of activity identified by legal practitioners as being those where the need is greatest, those which are particularly technical, and those where the legislation is poorly implemented. Training should also include the teaching of foreign languages, to facilitate exchanges between Member States.

To address the time constraints faced by legal practitioners, eLearning should be developed. The European e-Justice Portal will be further developed, to provide more information about judicial training.

Starting from 2014, the Commission also intends to launch a programme of short term exchanges for newly appointed judges and prosecutors to improve their knowledge of the legal systems of other EU countries.

Implementation

The most effective way to achieve the objective of training half of the legal practitioners is to use the existing structures, actors and networks at national and European level.

At national level, training is provided, depending on the Member State, by judicial training structures, the ministry of Justice, the Council for the judiciary, court services and professional associations. The Commission aims to reinforce cooperation with and between these different stakeholders.

At European level, European associations of legal practitioners and judicial training providers such as the Academy of European Law (ERA), the European Centre for Judges and Lawyers of the European Institute of Public Administration (EIPA), the European University Institute of Firenze and the College of Europe are a way of increasing European judicial training.

The European Judicial Training Network (EJTN), which brings together the ERA and the national training structures, should be reinforced to ensure that its activities reach more members of the judiciary. For the network to play a more active role, Member States should increase their financial contribution. The goal is for the network to be able to organise 1 200 exchanges in courts per year.

European Commission action

The Commission will support a number of measures such as public-private partnerships to develop innovative training solutions and the organisation of an annual gathering of all legal professions to facilitate exchanges of good practice.

With regard to funding, the Commission aims to make European judicial training a priority of the new financial framework and to increase EU financial support. It will encourage, notably through grants, high-quality projects with a considerable European impact and reaching a large audience.

Related Acts

The Stockholm Programme – An open and secure Europe serving and protecting citizens [Official Journal C 115 of 4.5.2010].

Council conclusions of 27 October 2011 on European judicial training [Official Journal C 361 of 10.12.2011].

European Security Research and Innovation Agenda

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European Security Research and Innovation Agenda

Outline of the Community (European Union) legislation about European Security Research and Innovation Agenda

Topics

These categories group together and put in context the legislative and non-legislative initiatives which deal with the same topic.

Research and innovation > Research in support of other policies

European Security Research and Innovation Agenda

Document or Iniciative

Communication from the Commission of 21 December 2009 – “A European Security Research and Innovation Agenda – Commission’s initial position on ESRIF’s key findings and recommendations” [COM(2009) 691 final – Not published in the Official Journal].

Summary

In light of modern security concerns, the European Security Research and Innovation Forum (ESRIF) was established in 2007 to develop a European Security Research and Innovation Agenda (ESRIA). With a view to improving coherence at European Union (EU), national and regional levels, the agenda provides a common strategic roadmap for security research and innovation. This communication presents the Commission’s initial view on ESRIF’s key findings and recommendations for the agenda.

Societal security and resilience

The human and societal aspects of security must be at the heart of security research. The EU must strengthen the legal and ethical dimensions of all security solutions to guarantee the rights and freedoms of individuals, in particular as regards privacy. In addition, it must reinforce the societal dimension of security technologies to ensure that they allow societies to effectively respond to risks and losses (“societal resilience”).

Industrial policy

The EU security industry has previously suffered from the fragmentation of markets, which has led it to be nationally or even regionally oriented. To protect the interests of its citizens and provide for a competitive security industry, the EU needs to pursue a strong and independent technological and scientific base. It should aim for a leadership position in the global security market, endorsing the idea of a Lead Market Initiative (LMI) for the sector. To this end, the EU needs to develop an ambitious industrial policy that will:

overcome market fragmentation, by putting in place certification, validation and standardisation -mechanisms (including a “European Security Label”), harmonising the regulatory framework, and developing technical and organisational interoperability standards to improve exchanges of information, especially on cross-border security issues;
strengthen the industrial base, by mapping the competencies of the European Security Technological and Industrial Base (ESTIB), supporting innovation policy by bringing innovative security sectors into the LMI and accelerating pre-commercial procurement, promoting the take up of security issues already at the conception stage of new products/systems (“security by design”), and strengthening complementarity and cooperation between civil and defence technologies in specific areas.

Security research and development (R&D) roadmap

Since the thorough anticipation of future security threats is not possible, the EU should focus its security R&D on strengthening its ability to resist and recover from crises, both from the technological and societal points of view. Divided into five clusters, the ESRIA provides an integrative approach to R&D support for current security missions:

classic security cycle of preventing, protecting, preparing, responding and recovering;
countering of different means of attack;
securing critical assets/infrastructures;
securing identity, access and movement of people and goods;
cross-cutting enablers, in particular Information and Communication Technologies (ICT).

For future security missions, the R&D measures need to be further assessed. ESRIF recommends that particular attention is given to some research areas that were excluded from its mandate and that will likely increase in importance in future, in particular the external dimension of security. The Commission believes that further consideration also needs to be given to the inclusion of civil protection as well as conflict prevention and post crisis management into security R&D programmes.

For future solutions to correspond to the real needs of public and private end-users, they as well as supply and demand stakeholders must be consulted actively throughout the security research policy planning, execution and review cycles. Furthermore, ESRIF encourages the development of a strategic and coordinated approach to trans-European cooperation and the setting-up of an Internal Security Fund to provide resources for security R&D. Finally, education and training should be better used to raise public awareness of all security-related issues.

Developing Public Private Partnerships

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Developing Public Private Partnerships

Outline of the Community (European Union) legislation about Developing Public Private Partnerships

Topics

These categories group together and put in context the legislative and non-legislative initiatives which deal with the same topic.

Internal market > Businesses in the internal market > Public procurement

Developing Public Private Partnerships

Document or Iniciative

Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions of 19 November 2009 – Mobilising private and public investment for recovery and long term structural change: developing Public Private Partnerships [COM(2009) 615 final – Not published in the Official Journal].

Summary

Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) are innovative financing solutions promoted by the European Union (EU). In particular, they can contribute to:

facilitating projects in the public interest, notably infrastructures and cross-border public services;
sharing financial risks and reducing the costs of infrastructure which are normally fully funded by the public sector;
supporting sustainable development, innovation, research and development through competition and commitments from private enterprise.
enlarging European companies’ market shares in government procurement in countries outside the EU.

PPPs within the EU

These partnerships must be compatible with the rules of the EU as regards:

the operation of the internal market;
the Stability and Growth Pact;
Community legislation on public procurement and concessions;
competition rules, insofar as PPPs carry out economic activities.

EU financing can be used to co-finance PPPs. National public and private stakeholders can benefit from:

structural funds associated to PPPs, and the JASPERS, JESSICA and JEREMIE initiatives;
European Investment Bank (EIB) funds and the European Investment Fund (EIF). The EIB has also established a European PPP Expertise Centre (EPEC) to assist in creating PPPs;
the financial instruments of the trans-European transport network (RTE-T network), which encourage the contribution of private financing, risk capital and the granting of bank loans;
the 7th Framework Programme for Research and Development and the Joint Technological Initiative (JTI).

The EU also recommends the use of instruments for innovation:

the Risk Sharing Finance Facility (RSFF), set up by the Commission and the EIB in order to facilitate access to loans. The European Economic Recovery Plan foresees an accelerated implementation of the RSFF;
the instruments of the Competitiveness and Innovation Framework Programme (CIP), which support PPPs in the areas of research, technological development and innovation.

PPPs outside the EU

PPPs can be set up as part of enlargement strategy and external cooperation actions. The EU also contributes to the Global Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fund, an international PPP for investors in developing countries.

Finally, the EU promotes improved transparency and operation of PPPs in its international trade relations.

Obstacles to the creation of PPPs

The economic crisis has limited access to financing due to:

the increase in the cost of credit;
a reduction in bank maturities to reduce the duration of loans;
a lack of financing at the outset for public procurement processes.

It is for this reason that the Commission has presented a temporary Community framework for State aid to support access to finance in this period of economic crisis.

Setting up PPPs often involves:

considerable financial resources;
expertise and specific training in the public sector;
complex financial arrangements;
long-term commitments from the authorities.

PPPs in the field of technological innovation are essential for EU competitiveness. The Commission is to build a specific framework to:

facilitate their creation and ensure that risks and responsibilities are shared between public and private stakeholders;
guarantee access to finance through grants, public procurement or investment.

Measures taken by the EU

The economic crisis has a negative impact on public finances and on projects requiring long-term investment. Thus in 2010, as part of the Economic Recovery Plan, the Commission plans five specific actions to foster the setting up of PPPs:

the creation of a group for dialogue and exchange between the stakeholders involved in a PPP;
an increase in available financial resources through existing European instruments and by developing specific instruments;
an assurance that public and private management bodies are to be treated equally with regard to European funding;
the promotion of innovation, in particular by allowing the EU to participate in private law bodies and directly invest in projects;
a proposal for a new legal instrument relating to public service concessions awarded to the private sector.

The Commission is also to evaluate a series of additional measures before the end of 2011. These concern:

extending the scope of European financial instruments;
completing the impact assessment concerning the initiative relating to the award of service concessions;
improving accounting practices;
disseminating specialised knowledge and know-how;
promoting information and communication technologies and innovation.